Experiences of Tibetan Refugees in India during the COVID-19 Pandemic
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.40877Mots-clés :
Tibetan, refugee, COVID-19, perceived stress, resilienceRésumé
Cette étude explore les expériences de 70 réfugié.es tibétain.es en Inde (28 hommes, 42 âge moyen = 30.90 écart-type = 8.11) pendant la pandémie de en ce qui concerne leur stress, leur anxiété financière, leur discrimination perçue, leurs attentes sombres par rapport à l’avenir et leur résilience. Les réfugié.es plus âgé.es, marié.es et occupant un emploi ont rencontré davantage de problèmes mais une plus grande résilience. Les femmes réfugiées ont signalé plus de nervosité et de stress que les hommes réfugiés. L’anxiété financière et les attentes sombres par rapport à l’avenir prédisaient un niveau de stress plus élevé. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats montrent des niveaux faibles à modérés de problèmes de santé mentale et une grande résilience chez les réfugié.es tibétain.es pendant la pandémie et soulignent l’importance des croyances et pratiques culturelles dans le maintien d’une bonne santé mentale et de la résilience.
Statistiques
Références
Afridi, F., Dhillon, A., & Roy, S. (2021). The gendered crisis: Livelihoods and mental well-being in India during COVID-19 (WIDER Working Paper 65/2021). World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER). https://doi.org/10.35188/UNU-WIDER/2021/003-0
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
American Psychiatric Association. (2006, February 23). Stress weakens the immune system. https://www.apa.org/research/action/immune
American Psychological Association. (2012, January 1). Building your resilience. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience#
Annis, R., Gibson, R., & Berry, J. W. (2010, October). Intercultural relations in a rural Canadian prairie city [Paper presentation]. Mi/Más Konferencia, Eger, Hungary. https://www.brandonu.ca/rdi/publication/intercultural-relations-in-a-rural-canadian-prairie-city/
Archuleta, K. L., Dale, A., & Spann, S. M. (2013). College students and financial distress: Exploring debt, financial satisfaction, and financial anxiety. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 24(2), 50–62. http://hdl.handle.net/2097/17281
Artiles, C. (2011). Tibetan refugees’ rights and services in India. Human Rights & Human Welfare Working Papers. https://www.academia.edu/40688593/Tibetan_Refugees_Rights_and_Services_in_India
Baker, A., & Shalhoub-Kevorkian, N. (1999). Effects of political and military traumas on children: The Palestinian case. Clinical Psychology Review, 19(8), 935–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00004-5
Barbosa‐Leiker, C., Kostick, M., Lei, M., McPherson, S., Roper, V., Hoekstra, T., & Wright, B. (2013). Measurement invariance of the perceived stress scale and latent mean differences across gender and time. Stress and Health, 29(3), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2463
Bean, T. M., Eurelings-Bontekoe, E., & Spinhoven, P. (2007). Course and predictors of mental health of unaccompanied refugee minors in the Netherlands: One year follow-up. Social Science & Medicine, 64(6), 1204–1215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.11.010
Bearak, M. (2016, June 1). Dalai Lama says there are “too many refugees in Europe.” Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/dalai-lama-says-too-many-refugees-europe-a7058911.html
Ben-Kane, Y. (2015). Perceived discrimination, identity and outgroup attitudes among Russian-speaking immigrants living in Finland [Unpublished master’s thesis]. University of Helsinki, Finland. https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/155269
Bernstorff, D., & von Welck, H. (Eds.). (2003). Exile as challenge: The Tibetan diaspora. Orient Blackswan.
Cairney, J., Boyle, M., Offord, D. R., & Racine, Y. (2003). Stress, social support and depression in single and married mothers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38(8), 442–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-003-0661-0
Central Tibetan Administration. (2021). Chatrel background. https://tibet.net/support-tibet/pay-green-book/
Chatterjee, S. S., Malathesh Barikar, C., & Mukherjee, A. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on pre-existing mental health problems. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, Article 102071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102071
Choedon, Y. (2018, February 23). The unintended consequences of India’s policy on citizenship for Tibetan refugees. Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. https://idsa.in/policybrief/unintended-consequences-of-india-policy-on-citizenship-for-tibetan-refugees-ychoedon-230218
Crescenzi, A., Ketzer, E., Van Ommeren, M., Phuntsok, K., Komproe, I., & de Jong, J. T. (2002). Effect of political imprisonment and trauma history on recent Tibetan refugees in India. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15(5), 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020129107279
Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & S. Oskamp. (Eds.), The social psychology of health (pp. 31–67). Sage Publications.
Cullen, W., Gulati, G., & Kelly, B. D. (2020). Mental health in the COVID-19 pandemic. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 113(5), 311–312. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcaa110
De Jong, J. (Ed.). (2006). Trauma, war, and violence: Public mental health in socio-cultural context. Springer Science & Business Media.
Dixit, R. (2020, March 28). Northeast people battle racism amid coronavirus pandemic. The Week. https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/03/28/coronavirus-pandemic-fuels-racism-against-northeast-people.html
Evans, D., Buxton, D. C., Borisov, A., Manatunga, A. K., Ngodup, D., & Raison, C. L. (2008). Shattered Shangri-la: Differences in depressive and anxiety symptoms in students born in Tibet compared to Tibetan students born in exile. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 43(6), 429–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-008-0346-9
Fazel, M. K., & Young, D. M. (1988). Life quality of Tibetans and Hindus: A function of religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 229–242. https://doi.org/10.2307/1386717
Finnerty, R., Marshall, S. A., Imbault, C., & Trainor, L. J. (2021). Extra-curricular activities and well-being: Results from a survey of undergraduate university students during COVID-19 lockdown restrictions. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 647402. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647402
Gao, J., Zheng, P., Jia, Y., Chen, H., Mao, Y., Chen, S., Wang, Y., Fu, H., & Dai, J. (2020). Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak. PLoS One, 15(4), Article e0231924. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231924
Gao, X., Ren, Y., & Umar, M. (2021). To what extent does COVID-19 drive stock market volatility? A comparison between the U.S. and China. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2021.1906730
Gooding, P. A., Hurst, A., Johnson, J., & Tarrier, N. (2012). Psychological resilience in young and older adults. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(3), 262–270. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2712
Grupe, D. W., & Nitschke, J. B. (2013). Uncertainty and anticipation in anxiety: An integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(7), 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3524
Hermansson, A. C., Timpka, T., & Thyberg, M. (2002). The mental health of war-wounded refugees: An 8-year follow-up. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(6), 374–380. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200206000-00005
Hsu, E., Davies, C. A., & Hansen, D. J. (2004). Understanding mental health needs of Southeast Asian refugees: Historical, cultural, and contextual challenges. Clinical Psychology Review, 24(2), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2003.10.003
Hussain, D., & Bhushan, B. (2011). Cultural factors promoting coping among Tibetan refugees: A qualitative investigation. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 14(6), 575–587. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2010.497131
Jackson, P. R., Stafford, E. M., Banks, M. H., & Warr, P. B. (1983). Unemployment and psychological distress in young people: The moderating role of employment commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(3), 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.68.3.525
Jeste, D. V., Savla, G. N., Thompson, W. K., Vahia, I. V., Glorioso, D. K., Martin, A. V. S., Palmer, B. W., Rock, D., Golshan, S., Kraemer, H. C., & Depp, C. A. (2013). Association between older age and more successful aging: Critical role of resilience and depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(2), 188–196. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12030386
Ji, D., Ji, Y.J., Duan, X.-Z., Li,-W. G., Sun, Z.-Q., Song, X.-A., Meng, Y.-H., Tang, H.-M., Chu, F., Niu, X.-X., Chen, G.-F., Li, J., & Duan, H.-J. (2017). Prevalence of psychological symptoms among Ebola survivors and healthcare workers during the 2014–2015 Ebola outbreak in Sierra Leone: A cross-sectional study. Oncotarget, 8(8), 12784–12791. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.14498
Kadner, K. D. (1989). Resilience: Responding to adversity. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 27(7), 20–25. https://doi.org/10.3928/0279-3695-19890701-11
Ketzer, E., & Crescenzi, A. (2002). Addressing the psychosocial and mental health needs of Tibetan refugees in India. In J. De Jong (Ed.), Trauma, war, and violence: Public mental health in socio-cultural context (pp. 283–315). Springer.
Kinzie, J. D., Boehnlein, J. K., Leung, P. K., Moore, L. J., Riley, C., & Smith, D. (1990). The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and its clinical significance among Southeast Asian refugees. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(7), 913–917. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.147.7.913
Kokko, K., & Pulkkinen, L. (1998). Unemployment and psychological distress: Mediator effects. Journal of Adult Development, 5(4), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021450208639
Lewis, S. E. (2013). Trauma and the making of flexible minds in the Tibetan exile community. Ethos, 41(3), 313–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/etho.12024
Lhewa, D., Banu, S., Rosenfeld, B., & Keller, A. (2007). Validation of a Tibetan translation of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist–25 and the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire. Assessment, 14(3), 223–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191106298876
Mahmoudi, K. M. (1992). Refugee cross-cultural adjustment: Tibetans in India. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16, 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(92)90003-D
Marshall, G. N., Schell, T. L., Elliott, M. N., Berthold, S. M., & Chun, C. A. (2005). Mental health of Cambodian refugees 2 decades after resettlement in the United States. JAMA, 294(5), 571–579. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.5.571
Mills, E. J., Singh, S., Holtz, T. H., Chase, R. M., Dolma, S., Santa-Barbara, J., & Orbinski, J. J. (2005). Prevalence of mental disorders and torture among Tibetan refugees: A systematic review. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 5(1), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-5-7
Mohindra, R., R, R.., Suri, V., Bhalla, A., & Singh, S. M. (2020). Issues relevant to mental health promotion in frontline health care providers managing quarantined/isolated COVID19 patients. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, Article 102084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102084
Mollica, R. F., Wyshak, G., de Marneffe, D., Khuon, F., & Lavelle, J. (1987). Indochinese versions of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist–25: A screening instrument for the psychiatric care of refugees. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(4), 497–500. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.4.497
Mukherjee, M. (2020, September). The pandemic and the Tibetan students. Seminar Magazine. https://www.india-seminar.com/2020/733/733_mousumi_mukherjee.htm
Norbu, D. (2001). China’s Tibet policy. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203826959
Pieh, C., O’Rourke, T., Budimir, S., & Probst, T. (2020). Relationship quality and mental health during COVID-19 lockdown. PLoS One, 15(9), Article e0238906. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238906
Qiu, J., Shen, B., Zhao, M., Wang, Z., Xie, B., & Xu, Y. (2020). A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: Implications and policy recommendations. General Psychiatry, 33(2), Article e100213. https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2020-100213
Rehman, U., Shahnawaz, M. G., Khan, N. H., Kharshiing, K. D., Khursheed, M., Gupta, K., Kashyap, D., & Uniyal, R. (2021). Depression, anxiety and stress among Indians in times of COVID-19 lockdown. Community Mental Health Journal, 57, 42–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-020-00664-x
Rosen, J. B., & Schulkin, J. (1998). From normal fear to pathological anxiety. Psychological Review, 105(2), 325–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.325
Ruwanpura, E., Mercer, S. W., Ager, A., & Duveen, G. (2006). Cultural and spiritual constructions of mental distress and associated coping mechanisms of Tibetans in exile: Implications for Western interventions. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(2), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fej018
Sachs, E., Rosenfeld, B., Lhewa, D., Rasmussen, A., & Keller, A. (2008). Entering exile: Trauma, mental health, and coping among Tibetan refugees arriving in Dharamsala, India. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(2), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20324
Schmitz, P. G., & Schmitz, F. (2012). Emotional intelligence and acculturation. Behavioral Psychology, 20(1), 15–41. https://www.behavioralpsycho.com/product/emotional-intelligence-and-acculturation/?lang=en
Servan-Schreiber, D., Le Lin, B., & Birmaher, B. (1998). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder in Tibetan refugee children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(8), 874–879. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199808000-00018
Shukla, M., Pandey, R., Singh, T., Riddleston, L., Hutchinson, T., Kumari, V., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2021). The effect of COVID-19 and related lockdown phases on young peoples’ worries and emotions: Novel data from India. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, Article 645183. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.645183
Silove, D. (2004). Mental health problems in migrants and refugees. Australian Doctor, 14, 31–38.
Singh, V. (2021, April 12). Northeast citizens faced racial discrimination amid COVID-19 outbreak, says govt. study. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/northeast-citizens-faced-racial-discrimination-amid-covid-19-outbreak-says-govt-study/article34303162.ece
Siqueira Reis, R., Ferreira Hino, A. A., & Romélio Rodriguez Añez, C. (2010). Perceived stress scale: Reliability and validity study in Brazil. Journal of Health Psychology, 15(1), 107–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309346343
Siriwardhana, C., & Stewart, R. (2013). Forced migration and mental health: Prolonged internal displacement, return migration and resilience. International Health, 5(1), 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/inthealth/ihs014
Smith, L. (2021, April 9). Why it’s normal to feel anxious about a post-COVID future. Patient. https://patient.info/news-and-features/why-its-normal-to-feel-anxious-about-a-post-covid-future
Terheggen, M. A., Stroebe, M. S., & Kleber, R. J. (2001). Western conceptualizations and Eastern experience: A cross-cultural study of traumatic stress reactions among Tibetan refugees in India. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(2), 391–403. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011177204593
Torales, J., O’Higgins, M., Castaldelli-Maia, J. M., & Ventriglio, A. (2020). The outbreak of COVID-19 coronavirus and its impact on global mental health. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(4), 317–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020915212
The Tribune India. (2020, April 6). Anxiety over COVID-19 leads to Phagwara woman’s suicide. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/anxiety-over-covid-19-leads-to-phagwara-womans-suicide-66466
Tribune News Service. (2020, May 18). Centre extends nationwide lockdown till May 31, new guidelines issued. The Tribune India. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/centre-extends-nationwide-lockdown-till-may-31-new-guidelines-issued-86042
van de Weem-de Jong, M. (2004). A therapeutic training course for traumatised adolescent refugees. Intervention, 2(3), 226–230. https://www.interventionjournal.com/sites/default/files/226_230_Weem.pdf
Vos, A., Weber, K., Jayasinghe, D., Post, L., Wilson, K., Mehta Dhawan, S., & Zademach, H. M. (2020, November 25). COVID-19 and refugees’ economic opportunities, financial services and digital inclusion. International Rescue Committee. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/improvingfinancialhealth-r3.pdf
Wagnild, G. (2009). A review of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 17(2), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1891/1061-3749.17.2.105
Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 1(2), 165–178.
Walen, H. R., & Lachman, M. E. (2000). Social support and strain from partner, family, and friends: Costs and benefits for men and women in adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17(1), 5–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407500171001
Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., Ho, C. S., & Ho, R. C. (2020). Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) epidemic among the general population in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), Article 1729. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051729
Wang, H., Xia, Q., Xiong, Z., Li, Z., Xiang, W., Yuan, Y., Liu, Y., & Li, Z. (2020). The psychological distress and coping styles in the early stages of the 2019 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) epidemic in the general mainland Chinese population: A web-based survey. PLoS One, 15(5), Article e0233410. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233410
Weine, S. M., Razzano, L., Brkic, N., Ramic, A., Miller, K., Smajkic, A., Bijedic, Z., Boskailo, E., Mermelstein, R., & Pavkovic, I. (2000). Profiling the trauma related symptoms of Bosnian refugees who have not sought mental health services. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188(7), 416–421. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200007000-00004
World Health Organization. (2020, January 30). WHO Director-General’s statement on IHR Emergency Committee on Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV). https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-statement-on-ihr-emergency-committee-on-novel-coronavirus-(2019-ncov)
Worldometers. (2020). COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
Wu, S. M., & Amtmann, D. (2013). Psychometric evaluation of the perceived stress scale in multiple sclerosis. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2013, Article 608356. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/608356
Xiao, H., Zhang, Y., Kong, D., Li, S., & Yang, N. (2020). The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Medical Science Monitor, 26, Article e923549. https://doi.org/10.12659/MSM.923549
Yu, H., Li, M., Li, Z., Xiang, W., Yuan, Y., Liu, Y., Li, Z., & Xiong, Z. (2020). Coping style, social support and psychological distress in the general Chinese population in the early stages of the COVID-19 epidemic. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02826-3
Zaleski, Z. (1996). Future anxiety: Concept, measurement, and preliminary research. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(2), 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00070-0
Zaleski, Z., Sobol-Kwapinska, M., Przepiorka, A., & Meisner, M. (2019). Development and validation of the Dark Future Scale. Time & Society, 28(1), 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X16678257
Téléchargements
Publié-e
Comment citer
Numéro
Rubrique
Licence
© Lhamo Tso, Meenakshi Shukla 2022
Cette œuvre est sous licence Creative Commons Attribution - Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale 4.0 International.
Les auteurs qui publient dans Refuge conservent le droit d’auteur associé à leur œuvre, et octroient au public une licence Creative Commons Attribution - Utilisation non commerciale 4.0 International. La licence permet l’utilisation, la reproduction et l’adaptation du matériel avec attribution par tous moyens et sous tous formats pour des fins non commerciales. Pour des informations générales sur les licences Creative Commons, visitez le site Creative Commons. Pour la licence CC BY-NC 4.0, consultez le résumé lisible par l'homme.